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The Impact of Arco Norte on Northern Amazonia and the Guiana Shield: Methodological ReflectionsEuropean review of Latin American and Caribbean studies, 2003-10, Vol.75 (75), p.101-108 [Peer Reviewed Journal]COPYRIGHT 2003 Centrum voor Studie en Documentatie ;Copyright CEDLA - Centre for Latin American Research and Documentation Oct 2003 ;ISSN: 0924-0608 ;ISSN: 1879-4750 ;EISSN: 1879-4750 ;DOI: 10.18352/erlacs.9696Full text available |
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Current Trends in Wireless Sensor Network DesignInternational journal of distributed sensor networks, 2005-01, Vol.1 (1), p.101-122 [Peer Reviewed Journal]2005 Taylor & Francis Inc. ;ISSN: 1550-1477 ;ISSN: 1550-1329 ;EISSN: 1550-1477 ;DOI: 10.1080/15501320590901865Digital Resources/Online E-Resources |
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The Fast Downward Planning SystemThe Journal of artificial intelligence research, 2006-01, Vol.26, p.191-246 [Peer Reviewed Journal]2006. Notwithstanding the ProQuest Terms and Conditions, you may use this content in accordance with the associated terms available at https://www.jair.org/index.php/jair/about ;ISSN: 1076-9757 ;EISSN: 1943-5037 ;DOI: 10.1613/jair.1705Full text available |
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Improving Distributed Runoff Prediction in Urbanized Catchments with Remote Sensing based Estimates of Impervious Surface CoverSensors (Basel, Switzerland), 2008-02, Vol.8 (2), p.910-932 [Peer Reviewed Journal]Copyright MDPI AG 2008 ;2008 by MDPI 2008 ;ISSN: 1424-8220 ;EISSN: 1424-8220 ;DOI: 10.3390/s8020910 ;PMID: 27879743Full text available |
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Predicting Los Angeles abrasion loss of rock aggregates from crushability indexBulletin of materials science, 2008-04, Vol.31 (2), p.173-177 [Peer Reviewed Journal]Indian Academy of Sciences 2008 ;Indian Academy of Sciences 2008. ;ISSN: 0250-4707 ;EISSN: 0973-7669 ;DOI: 10.1007/s12034-008-0030-4Full text available |
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A Special Fiber Optic Sensor for Measuring Wheel Loads of Vehicles on HighwaysSensors (Basel, Switzerland), 2008-04, Vol.8 (4), p.2551-2568 [Peer Reviewed Journal]Copyright MDPI AG 2008 ;2008 by MDPI (http://www.mdpi.org). 2008 ;ISSN: 1424-8220 ;EISSN: 1424-8220 ;DOI: 10.3390/s8042551 ;PMID: 27879835Full text available |
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Requirements for the Design of Advanced Driver Assistance Systems - The Differences between Swedish and Chinese DriversInternational journal of design, 2008-08, Vol.2 (2), p.41-54 [Peer Reviewed Journal]2008 Lindgren, Chen, Jordan, and Zhang. Copyright for this article is retained by the authors, with first publication rights granted to the International Journal of Design. All journal content, except where otherwise noted, is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivs 2.5 License. By virtue of their appearance in this open access journal, articles are free to use, with proper attribution, in educational and other non-commercial settings.*Corresponding Author:anders.lindgren@chalmers.seAnders Lindgren, Lic.Fil. is a Ph.D. candidate in the Division of Interaction Design within the Department of Computer Science and Engineering at Chalmers University of Technology, Gothenburg, Sweden. He has a background in cognitive science, and his work is focused on human-centered design within the area of advanced driver assistance systems (ADASs) with special interest in the impact of individual and cultural differences. Fang Chen is an associate professor in the Division of Interaction Design in the Department of Computer Science and Engineering at Chalmers University of Technology, Gothenburg, Sweden. She has many years experience within the areas of physical and cognitive ergonomics, human factors and human-computer interaction. Chen has published over 70 papers on her research in articles and books, and is currently working with driver assistance and nomadic device information.Patrick W. Jordan is a design, marketing and brand strategist and has a PhD in Psychology. He has held the Nierenberg Chair at Carnegie-Mellon University, and was Chair of Design and Marketing at the University of Leeds. Jordan was formerly the CEO of the Contemporary Trends Institute and, prior to that, Vice-President of Symbian. Haixin Zhang is an associate professor at Sino European Usability Center (SEUC), School of Information Science & Technology of Dalian Maritime University, China. His research areas include usability engineering, accessibility and human-computer interaction. Currently his work is focused on user requirements for in-vehicle information systems. He has contributed to several consultancies to industries of China as well as to research funded by EU Framework Program in SEUC.IntroductionOver the last few decades, safety has become an increasingly important concern for the automotive industry. Safety testing organizations such as the European New Car Assessment Programme provide customers with information about the safety ratings for different makes and models. Today, these rankings are based on a vehicle's passive safety, taking into account things such as airbags and crumple-zones. Over the last few years, however, automotive manufacturers have been putting much effort into active safety. Active safety systems, also known as Advanced Driver Assistance Systems (ADASs), are a variety of independent electronic systems designed to help the driver maneuver through demanding traffic situations. Their overall aim is to reduce traffic accidents and to make the driving experience easier and more efficient. ADASs can offer support to the driver at four different levels. At the most basic level, they present drivers with information which enables them to make more informed driving decisions, for example information about pedestrians not visible to the driver during night driving. At the next level, ADASs can give the driver warnings of an imminent and possibly perilous situation to give them more time for decision making and reaction. The third level of intervention involves the system not only warning the driver but also advising or guiding them through the situation. At the highest level of intervention, ADASs either take action independently or override the action of the driver. Regardless of level of intervention, manufacturers who implement these systems hope to increase driving safety by assisting the driver before a critical situation arises (Lindgren & Chen, 2007) or, at least, to reduce the consequences of driver error. The design and development of these systems, though, has concentrated on the needs of motorists in Western markets. A question remains as to whether those currently available can offer similar benefits to drivers in other areas of the world. Looking, then, at how best to go about designing for a global market, Shneiderman and Plaisant (2005) emphasized the importance of all design beginning with an understanding of the intended user's attitudes, needs and requirements. When designing products for global use from this user-centered perspective, it is important to understand how needs differ around the world. This may be particularly true for ADASs as not only the rules of the road, but also social environments, norms, and driver behavior may vary significantly from country to country and have a notable influence on the attitudes and behaviors of drivers (Zeidel, 1992). Consequently, an ADAS that is of great value to drivers of one country may be of less value to those in another (Lindgren, Broström, Chen, & Bengtsson, 2007). Today, automotive manufacturers take into account the different markets when it comes to design. For example, manufacturers such as Toyota have different in-car control and display designs depending on whether the vehicle is bound for the Asian, American or European market. With respect to ADASs, the work with making adjustments for particular markets still seems to be in the early stages (Krum, Faenger, Lathrop, Sison, & Lien, 2008). With the Western world being the most dominant market, the development of ADASs is generally based on perceptions about the needs of drivers in those countries. Recently, there has been an increasing amount of research published on the technical aspects of ADASs' development, with many of these publications coming from China (Gong et al., 2008; Zhao et al., 2008; Wu et al., 2008). There is scant information, however, from a user-centered design perspective targeting Chinese drivers.In the face of this dearth of research, the Chinese automotive industry is truly booming, and the Chinese government is beginning to introduce intelligent transportation systems in the infrastructure to prepare for new generations of vehicles to come (Zhang et al., 2005). In just over 20 years, the production of passenger cars in China has increased from 220,000 to 2.34 million units (China Statistical Yearbook, 2004). By 2003, approximately seven percent of the 530 million vehicles in the world were being driven in China (World Watch Institute, 2003). At the same time, the composition of the Chinese driver population has quickly changed from having a majority of professional drivers, like taxi drivers, to more than half being private drivers. This rapid increase in the number of novice drivers is becoming a major challenge to traffic safety, as seen in the resulting problem of traffic fatalities increasing (Zhang, Huang, Roetting, Wang, & Wei, 2006), with almost 110,000 people being killed every year (China Road Traffic Accident Statistics, 2003). This accounts for about 20 percent of the total annual number of traffic fatalities in the world. With China's rapid economical development, predictions are that this problem will increase. It has been projected that the number of vehicles per capita will increase faster than the fatalities per vehicle will decrease (Zhang et al., 2006), which forecasts a worrisome future.In considering these high numbers of fatalities, the general dangers on Chinese roads should be illuminated. One issue drivers face is a chaotic driving environment that includes many vulnerable road users such as pedestrians and bicyclists (Huang, Zhang, Roetting, & Melton, 2006; Lindgren et al., 2007). China also struggles with infrastructural issues, including poorly designed road signs or even a lack of them at road construction areas (Lindgren, Chen, Jordan, & Ljungstrand, n.d.). In addition to the complex driving environment and infrastructural issues, driver behavior is considered a major safety problem. Huang et al. (2006) found Chinese drivers to be more aggressive than drivers in the USA, as the Chinese drive more offensively and disobey traffic rules. A study by Xie and Parker (2002) showed that these aggressive violations significantly contributed to traffic accidents in China. Moreover, they asserted that this deliberate behavior may be a result of culturally specific norms, such as a sense of social hierarchies or challenging legitimate authority. In further emphasizing the role culture plays, Lee (2006) criticizes past research done solely on driver behavior as it focused only on individual differences of drivers as contributors to traffic dangers. He claims that the extreme difference in the rate of fatalities between countries suggests that culture has an important influence on driving behavior, as well as plays a critical role in general driving safety. Assuming this is true, before launching into an exploration of culture as a factor involved in traffic safety, it is important to first establish an understanding of the concept of culture. There are hundreds of ways to define the concept of culture. As it pertains to the present discussion, culture will be understood as being the characteristics common to a particular group of people that are learned and not given by nature. We can differentiate the concept of culture into the following four primary dimensions (Allwood, 1985):Patterns of thought - common ways of thinking, including factual beliefs, values, norms, and emotional attitudes. Patterns of behavior - common ways of behaving, intentional/unintentional, aware/unaware or individual/interactive. Patterns of artifacts - common ways of manufacturing and using material things. Imprints in nature - the long lasting imprints left by a group on the natural surroundings, including agriculture, waste, and roads, which give us a basic understanding of the culture. According to Allwood, all human activities can be encompassed by the first two dimensions. Most activities also involve the third dimension, while ecologically important activities also involve the fourth. When a particular activity combines several of these dimensions over a period of time, it can be said that this activity has become institutionalized and transformed into a socio-cultural institution, which is a type of institution that differs around the world. As a pertinent example, in Turkey the traffic flow speed tends to be much higher than the speed limit (patterns of behavior), while Turkish drivers do not see speeding as serious an offense (patterns of thought) as compared to what Western Europeans might (Özkan, Lajunen, El Chliaoutakis, Parker, & Summala, 2006). With huge cross-cultural differences, it is remarkable that automotive manufacturers continue implementing new safety technologies without considering different markets. Some ADASs produce what are known as 'imminent warnings' presented to the driver just prior to a potential accident. With such short reaction time, cross-cultural differences may be negligible. However, more and more research in the area points toward a need for multi-level ADAS warnings. To better estimate upcoming situations and drive more safely, drivers need to be more aware of the current traffic situation (Endsley, Bolté, & Jones, 2003). Studies of collision avoidance (Lerner, 1993; Shutko, 1999); driver drowsiness warning (Bekiaris & Nikolaou, 2004); lane drifting and dangerous curve warning (Brunetti-Sayer, Sayer, & Devonshire, 2005); and reduced visibility (Cacciabue & Martinetto, 2006) all show that, besides the imminent warning that should be activated when immediate evasive actions are needed to avoid a collision, a cautionary warning should be given whenever a critical situation is recognized, though no immediate action is necessary. These cautionary warnings even further necessitate designing a culturally sensitive ADAS.With cautionary warnings, the driver can be made better aware of traffic situations and take proper actions before a critical event arises. The result could be fewer incidents and fewer imminent warnings that need to be activated. However, since precautionary situations occur more often than imminent ones, advisory warnings will also be presented to the driver frequently resulting in a danger of information overload and reduced alertness to warnings (Gupta, Bisantz, & Singh, 2002), as well as a less positive attitude towards the system (Lee, Hoffman, & Hayes, 2004). This problem could be exacerbated when introducing an ADAS created for a Western country to a market such as China where infrastructure, traffic situations and driver behavior are very different (Huang et al., 2006). To illustrate, situations that might be considered dangerous in a Western context might be seen as quite typical to drivers in China. There is a danger that these Chinese drivers would become annoyed by such constant "Western" information or warnings. In addition, different ADASs that a single car may use are developed and evaluated independently (Lee et al., 2004; Ma, Sheik-Nainar, & Kaber, 2005; Piao, McDonald, Henry, Vaa, & Tveit, 2005; Stanton & Young, 2005 etc.). This means that there is no clear concept of how these systems will work together and how the driver will understand them as a whole. This issue is emphasized by Hollnagel (2006), who brings up a potentially dangerous situation where a number of systems may be competing for the driver's attention. This may possibly distract or even misguide the driver and, in a worst case scenario, contribute to an accident. By adding precautionary warnings on top of this, the issue may become even more troublesome. Today, there is an enormous lack of understanding of how drivers interpret traffic situations while driving, as well as in the differences of those interpretations by Western drivers and those by drivers in emerging markets. Nevertheless, systems developed in Western countries are introduced into these emerging markets without significant changes. The ultimate question that still looms is whether or not ADAS research from Western countries can be directly applicable to the Chinese traffic situation. This question is addressed in the three studies presented in this article. Study 1 investigates the most common traffic problems for Chinese drivers, and what Chinese drivers think about the introduction of ADASs to their automotive market. Study 2 compares the different needs for ADASs that people have in Sweden and in China by employing a naturalistic video presentation of possibly dangerous driving situations, and then compares Chinese and Swedish drivers' interpretation of the situations. Finally, Study 3 focuses on trying to determine what complications these differences may give rise to when developing and designing ADASs.Study 1Shall We Introduce ADAS to Cars in China?For whatever reasons, it is very difficult to find internationally published reports of detailed accident analysis from China, inside or outside of the country. The Chinese City Traffic website (http://www.chinautc.com/information/newsshow.asp?newsid=1090) did, however, publish some data relating to accidents, fatalities and injuries from 1970 to 2005. Over those 35 years, the number of traffic accidents increased by ten times (from 55, 437 cases in 1970 to 450, 254 cases in 2005). During that time, the number of fatalities increased by roughly the same degree, from 9,654 to 98,738. Some limited accident analysis reports published in the China Insurance Report (July 2nd, 2006) showed that accidents were most likely to occur on low quality roads and on country roads. Multiple car collision rates were high as well. In February 2008, the traffic police office in Zhejiang province conducted a questionnaire with over 90,000 road users about dangerous factors on highways, The report (refer to http://www.zjol.com.cn/05car/system/2008/02/27/009246590.shtml) listed ten main factors that included speeding, driver fatigue and drowsiness, tailgating, drunk driving, use of safety belts and lane changes. Results showed that bad driving habits and poor understanding of and respect for road and safety regulations were the obvious problems.There are very few studies that have investigated what kind of ADAS is needed for drivers to cope with the traffic problems in China. The purpose of this first study is therefore to identify the most common traffic problems Chinese drivers face, and what Chinese drivers' opinions are about the introduction of ADASs into their cars. In order to keep the study to a manageable size, seven systems were selected for this study. These systems areBlind Spot Information System (BLIS), Forward Collision Warning (FCW), Night Vision System (NVS), Driver Alert System (DAS), Adaptive Cruise Control (ACC), Tyre Monitoring System (TMS) and Lane Departure Warning System (LDW). These systems were selected as they were among the first ADASs introduced on the commercial market. Blind Spot Information System (BLIS)The BLIS is a sensor or camera-based system used to provide the driver with information about vehicles, pedestrians or cyclists in areas not visible in the rear-view mirrors (Floudas, Amditis, Keinath, Bengler, & Engeln, 2004).Forward Collision Warning (FCW)The FCW uses sensor technology (laser or microwave radars) that measures distance, angular position and relative speed of the car and obstacles ahead. If an obstacle is found, the system decides whether or not the vehicle is in imminent danger of crashing. If there is a risk of crashing, the system provides the driver with a warning (Floudas et al., 2004).Night Vision System (NVS)Night vision systems use cameras and near or far infrared lights to flood the area in front of the vehicle. Thermal maps of the environment are then used to create an image and present this to the driver with the purpose of improving vision at night and in bad weather (Siemens VDO, 2005).Driver Alert System (DAS)DAS use vehicle sensors or in-vehicle cameras to monitor driver behavior and provide the driver with a warning, for example when the vehicle's lateral position changes in an irrational pattern or when eyelid movements lessen (Floudas et al., 2004).Adaptive Cruise Control (ACC)Using radar technology, the ACC automatically adjusts the vehicle's speed to maintain a safe distance from a vehicle ahead in the same lane (Siemens VDO, 2005). If the vehicle ahead slows down or accelerates, the system either makes the car decelerate or accelerate to maintain the preset distance. The ACC is expected to ensure that there is enough distance from the car in front, even if that driver unexpectedly reduces speed (Ford, n.d.). Tyre Monitoring System (TMS)The TMS measures a wheel's rotational speed relative to the other wheels. This allows the system to detect dangerously low air pressure in the tires. If there is a critical air pressure loss in one or several tires, the system notifies the driver (Toyota, n.d.).Lane Departure Warning (LDW)LDW is a camera based system that recognizes lane markings and is activated when a driver is about to leave a lane without using the turning signal (Siemens VDO, 2005).Method60 participants in Beijing were asked to complete questionnaires. The 60 participants (56 male, 4 female) included 45 private car owners, 10 taxi drivers, and five car salespersons. The questionnaire was based on the Manchester Driver Behaviour Questionnaire (originally developed by Reason, Manstead, Stradling, Baxter, & Campbell, 1990) and contained questions about traffic problems. Participants were asked how often they face certain types of problem, and answered by choosing between the alternatives often, occasionally, and never. After the questionnaire was completed, a follow-up interview was conducted where the participants were asked to comment on those traffic problems in order to get a broader view of them. Finally, the participants were asked, based on the traffic problems encountered, to discuss each ADAS's perceived usefulness.ResultsTraffic ProblemsThe results showed that there were nine traffic problems that most participants considered serious. These problems are presented in bold text in Table 1, and some are described in more detail below.Table 1. Traffic Problems encountered by the participants (n=60)Bad VisibilityThe drivers fo und these problems to occur in foggy and rainy conditions, or at night. Many of the drivers believed that street lights are insufficient and, as many cars are parked along streets, there may be problems in detecting pedestrians and cyclists suddenly appearing between two vehicles.Driving on the Hard ShoulderThe problem of drivers using the hard shoulder (emergency lane) was considered a big problem. This type of driving often occurs in heavy traffic when people are impatient and try to save time getting to the next road exit.Pedestrians and Bicyclists not Using CrosswalksThis problem was considered one of the main traffic issues in China. On smaller roads, there is always a mix of vehicles, pedestrians and bicyclists. Many of these vulnerable road users are either not used to vehicles or are not aware of the danger, and may therefore cross the road without paying attention to other traffic.Illegal OvertakingOther situations that the participants found problematic were those in which drivers overtake vehicles from the inside, or overtake a vehicle that is already overtaking another vehicle.Driver DistractionIn China it is very common that people use their cell phones while driving. Almost all participants admitted that they often use their phones while driving even though they know that it may distract them.SpeedingWith congestion and speed cameras, speeding is seldom a problem during the daytime. However, the problem escalates after dusk and, during the night, speeding may also be a result of drunk driving.CongestionCongestion is one of the most rapidly increasing problems in Beijing. The participants found this problem to be very common on the ring roads surrounding Beijing. Looking at earlier research, this problem is obvious. Huang and Wu (2006) found that the average speed on the ring roads around Beijing is about 35 km/h during the daytime. Attitudes towards ADASsSummarizing the participants' ratings of the seven ADASs, it can be seen that the four systems considered most useful are the BSI, FCW, NVS, and the TMS. The participants generally believed that these systems could help prevent accidents if properly designed. In contrast, they were not as interested in ACC or the DAS, as the majority of the participants felt that the traffic situation in China was too complex for the systems to work. Further, they believed that, with only a few cars equipped with ACC, the system would not help very much. In the case of the DAS, participants were of the opinion that they could handle the driving themselves. Some even thought that this type of system could be misused as tired drivers could go on driving further without taking a break. In discussing the LDW, most participants found no use for the system in China as many roads lack lane markings. DiscussionStudy 1 provides a series of insights into the driving culture in China, the key safety issues that Chinese drivers face, and their attitudes towards ADASs. The traffic problems identified in China indicate strong cultural factors regarding pattern of thought and pattern of behavior. The participants found problems with drivers using the hard shoulder (emergency lane), illegal overtaking, and speeding to be the main factors causing accidents. These results agree with results showing that unsafe behavior is the sole or a contributing factor in more than 90% of accidents world-wide (Rumar, 1985). Illegal overtaking and speeding are also evident problems in the Western world. On Swedish roads, for example, 37-85% of drivers drive faster than the posted speed limits, depending on road conditions (Nilsson, 1991).What is a more unique and severe problem for China is the complex traffic environment with congestion, where pedestrians and bicyclists do not use crosswalks. One could argue that this is due to the higher population and traffic density, but it also reflects the social pattern of thought. When deciding between following regulations or social norms, people in China often tend to select the latter. In Sweden, on the other hand, a law forcing drivers to stop at crossings at all times, where earlier drivers only had to stop if a person at the crossing made it clear that he or she was about to cross the road, actually increased the number of rear-end collisions due to sudden braking (Thulin, 2007). Thus, it is clear that attitudes towards traffic rules differ with respect to their social acceptance in the population (Åberg, 1998). These types of cultural differences of course affect the usefulness of and preferences for ADASs. In order to reach optimal utility of the ADASs, it is necessary that all drivers and the majority of other types of road users follow traffic regulations. In a country where people do not consider following traffic regulations to be obligatory, but rather follow social norms and behavior, the utility of the ADAS will be greatly diminished. Nowadays, most automotive manufacturers provide vehicles with some type of ADAS. It seems that the automobile industry has reached a common understanding of the importance and usefulness of these systems in Western countries. Overall, the Chinese drivers in this study were fairly positive to the introduction of ADASs to the Chinese market. It was also evident, however, that the participants' perceptions of the systems' comparative usefulness were culturally mediated. For example, the discussions revealed that continual lane switching and tailgating are very engrained in Chinese driving culture. The reason that ACC and the LDWS scored comparatively low could therefore largely depend on the participants' beliefs that they would constantly be given warnings and would either be distracted by them or simply ignore them. This creates a vexing problem in that the systems created to make the roads safer may actually add to the danger on the roads due to an ingrained driving culture. To illustrate this problem, look at the situation where even though drivers in China know how to keep safe distances and to use turn signals when changing lanes, many deliberately choose not to. According to Reason et al. (1990) this type of deliberate violation is often what causes severe accidents. This creates the situation where the ADASs most needed will also be the ones that are least accepted. At the same time, selection of the BLIS as the most preferred ADAS by the questionnaire participants reflected an appreciation of a real solution to another culturally specific problem - in this case bicycles which are often in the driver's blind spot when making turns in urban traffic. Although participants' reactions show a positive response to a serious issue, it is once again clear that the drivers' preferences and attitudes towards ADASs were highly culturally mediated. The cultural influences are not necessarily straightforward, however, and there is a danger that local driving norms may lead to drivers resisting the systems that would actually be most beneficial to them. In considering the accuracy of this study, it would be a stretch to claim that the sample was statistically representative of Chinese drivers as a whole. Participants were largely sampled on a pragmatic or opportunistic basis, and professional drivers and male drivers were overrepresented. Nevertheless, the outcomes of the study gave some important insights into the Chinese driving culture and attitudes towards ADASs. Study 2Are There Differences In How Chinese and Swedish Drivers Interpret Possible Incidents?The purpose of Study 2 is to get a deeper understanding of the traffic problems brought up in Study 1, and to compare Chinese and Swedish drivers' interpretations of the situations in question in order to better understand the role of cultural differences. In this study, we tried to capture a real-life example of the traffic problems that were identified and discussed in Study 1. To accomplish this, driving sessions with five participants were held in the Chinese cities of Beijing and Dalian. The sessions were videotaped, and 30 hours of real-life driving footage were captured. The reason for only using videos of driving in China was to exemplify the problems there that are not found in the Western world. Initially, some pilot video recordings were made in Sweden, but they showed very few problems and no incidents that were understood as problems by the Swedish pilot testers and would probably not have been understood as problems by the Chinese participants. Several naturalistic driving studies have been and are being carried out in the USA and other countries, with the 100-car study being the largest and most well known (Neale, Dingus, Klauer, Sudweeks, & Goodman, 2005). These studies have provided us with a deep understanding of drivers' behavior, but there is little or no video data available in the published literature. With ADASs being developed and tested in the Western markets, research of this kind has long focused on these markets while only a handful of studies have concentrated on the rapidly developing markets, such as China. If focusing research on the Chinese market, it would be important, then, to compare Chinese drivers' understanding of driving conditions and specific traffic conditions with those of drivers in a Western country with a long history of vehicle and traffic safety. A comparison of this kind can expose the cultural differences regarding pattern of thought (Allwood, 1985) and may further be used to judge whether results of Western countries' driver behavior studies are applicable to other countries. A further intent of Study 2 was to develop and test appropriate methods to elicit Human Machine Interaction (HMI) design requirements for ADASs on the Chinese market.Before analyzing the videos, some alterations were made to the problem categories presented in Study 1. The category of bad visibility was excluded as no foggy or rainy conditions occurred during the recordings, and because the cameras used to film the driving were not suitable for recording at night. The category of driver distraction was also excluded as the drivers did not use cell phones or distract themselves with secondary tasks while driving. Measuring driver distraction in other more obtrusive ways, for example eye-tracking, was not practical as this would have required special permits from the Chinese government. Finally, the category of congestion was excluded as this was considered more an environmental and infrastructural issue than a traffic safety problem.MethodThe naturalistic driving data was analyzed, and driving situations found potentially dangerous were extracted and made into 15 to 45 second long video clips. For a situation to be considered potentially dangerous, it had to include driving behavior (participants' or other road users') that interfered with other motorists and could have eventually resulted in an accident. These situations were then categorized into subcategories and a total of 13 video clips were placed into the four categories of city driving, lane changing, road obstacles, and vehicle drifting. Videos in these categories were then compared to the traffic problems revealed by the participants in the first study to see how well they correlated. To study drivers' needs and requirements of ADASs in the situations extracted, two series of semi-structured interviews were conducted with drivers from the Chinese city of Dalian and the Swedish city of Gothenburg.ParticipantsFor the Chinese interview sessions, 20 participants (12 male and 8 female) were recruited through the Dalian Maritime University. The average participant was 37 years old and has held a driving license for nine years. The Swedish participants (10 male and 10 female) were recruited through local advertisements, had an average age of 44, and had been a licensed for an average of 25 years. The average yearly driving mileage for the Chinese drivers was 28,000 km, while for the Swedes it was 14,000 km. The criteria for selection into the study included the participants having a valid driving license ;ISSN: 1991-3761 ;ISSN: 1994-036X ;EISSN: 1994-036XFull text available |
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Integrated Evaluation of Urban Development Suitability Based on Remote Sensing and GIS Techniques - A Case Study in Jingjinji Area, ChinaSensors (Basel, Switzerland), 2008-09, Vol.8 (9), p.5975-5986 [Peer Reviewed Journal]Copyright MDPI AG 2008 ;2008 by the authors; licensee Molecular Diversity Preservation International, Basel, Switzerland. 2008 ;ISSN: 1424-8220 ;EISSN: 1424-8220 ;DOI: 10.3390/s8095975 ;PMID: 27873852Full text available |
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A Simulation Tool for Hurricane Evacuation PlanningModelling and Simulation in Engineering, 2009-01, Vol.2009, p.1-10 [Peer Reviewed Journal]Copyright © 2009 ;Copyright © 2009 Daniel J. Fonseca et al. This is an open access article distributed under the Creative Commons Attribution License, which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited. ;ISSN: 1687-5591 ;EISSN: 1687-5605 ;DOI: 10.1155/2009/729570Full text available |
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Nonparametric Binary Recursive Partitioning for Deterioration Prediction of Infrastructure ElementsAdvances in Civil Engineering, 2009-01, Vol.2009, p.1-12Copyright © 2009 ;Copyright © 2009 Mariza Pittou et al. This is an open access article distributed under the Creative Commons Attribution License, which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited. ;ISSN: 1687-8086 ;EISSN: 1687-8094 ;DOI: 10.1155/2009/809767Full text available |
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A Rule-Based Data Transfer Protocol for On-Demand Data Exchange in Vehicular EnvironmentEURASIP journal on wireless communications and networking, 2009-01, Vol.2009 (1), p.565683, Article 565683 [Peer Reviewed Journal]H.-C. Liao andW.-L. Liao. 2009. This article is published under license to BioMed Central Ltd. This is an open access article distributed under the Creative Commons Attribution License, which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited. ;Copyright © 2009 Hsien-Chou Liao et al. This is an open access article distributed under the Creative Commons Attribution License, which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited. ;ISSN: 1687-1499 ;ISSN: 1687-1472 ;EISSN: 1687-1499 ;DOI: 10.1155/2009/565683Full text available |
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A Highly Accurate Classification of TM Data through Correction of Atmospheric EffectsRemote sensing (Basel, Switzerland), 2009-09, Vol.1 (3), p.278-299 [Peer Reviewed Journal]Copyright MDPI AG 2009 ;ISSN: 2072-4292 ;EISSN: 2072-4292 ;DOI: 10.3390/rs1030278Full text available |
| 13 |
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Laboratory Characterization and Influence of Mineralogy and Grading on the Performance of Treated and Untreated Granular Materials Used as Surface Pavements in Unpaved RoadAdvances in Civil Engineering, 2010-01, Vol.2010, p.1-10Copyright © 2010 L. Beaulieu et al. ;Copyright © 2010 L. Beaulieu et al. L. Beaulieu et al. This is an open access article distributed under the Creative Commons Attribution License, which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited. ;ISSN: 1687-8086 ;EISSN: 1687-8094 ;DOI: 10.1155/2010/876852Full text available |
| 14 |
Material Type: Article
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Ground-Penetrating Radar Evaluation of Moisture and Frost across Typical Saskatchewan Road SoilsAdvances in Civil Engineering, 2010-01, Vol.2010, p.1-9Copyright © 2010 Curtis Berthelot et al. ;Copyright © 2010 Curtis Berthelot et al. Curtis Berthelot et al. This is an open access article distributed under the Creative Commons Attribution License, which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited. ;ISSN: 1687-8086 ;EISSN: 1687-8094 ;DOI: 10.1155/2010/416190Full text available |
| 15 |
Material Type: Article
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A Probabilistic Protocol for Multihop Routing in VANETsJournal of Electrical and Computer Engineering, 2010-01, Vol.2010, p.1-11 [Peer Reviewed Journal]Copyright © 2010 Junichiro Fukuyama. ;Copyright © 2010 Junichiro Fukuyama. Junichiro Fukuyama et al. This is an open access article distributed under the Creative Commons Attribution License, which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited. ;ISSN: 2090-0147 ;EISSN: 2090-0155 ;DOI: 10.1155/2010/185791Full text available |
| 16 |
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Application of Recursive Least Square Algorithm on Estimation of Vehicle Sideslip Angle and Road FrictionMathematical Problems in Engineering, 2010-01, Vol.2010, p.1-18 [Peer Reviewed Journal]Copyright © 2010 ;Copyright © 2010 Nenggen Ding et al. This is an open access article distributed under the Creative Commons Attribution License, which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited. ;ISSN: 1024-123X ;EISSN: 1563-5147 ;DOI: 10.1155/2010/541809Full text available |
| 17 |
Material Type: Article
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Detection of Ground Moving Targets for Two-Channel Spaceborne SAR-ATIEURASIP journal on advances in signal processing, 2010-01, Vol.2010 (1), Article 230785 [Peer Reviewed Journal]Zhen Dong et al. 2010. This article is published under license to BioMed Central Ltd. This is an open access article distributed under the Creative Commons Attribution License, which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited. ;ISSN: 1687-6180 ;ISSN: 1687-6172 ;EISSN: 1687-6180 ;DOI: 10.1155/2010/230785Full text available |
| 18 |
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Aging Influence on Fatigue Characteristics of RAC Mixtures Containing Warm Asphalt AdditivesAdvances in Civil Engineering, 2010-01, Vol.2010, p.1-10Copyright © 2010 ;Copyright © 2010 Feipeng Xiao et al. This is an open access article distributed under the Creative Commons Attribution License, which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited. ;ISSN: 1687-8086 ;EISSN: 1687-8094 ;DOI: 10.1155/2010/329084Full text available |
| 19 |
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Moving Target Indication via RADARSAT-2 Multichannel Synthetic Aperture Radar ProcessingEURASIP journal on advances in signal processing, 2010-01, Vol.2010 (1), Article 740130 [Peer Reviewed Journal]S. Chiu and M. V. Dragošević. 2010. This article is published under license to BioMed Central Ltd. This is an open access article distributed under the Creative Commons Attribution License, which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited. ;Copyright © 2010 S. Chiu et al. This is an open access article distributed under the Creative Commons Attribution License, which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited. ;ISSN: 1687-6180 ;ISSN: 1687-6172 ;EISSN: 1687-6180 ;DOI: 10.1155/2010/740130Full text available |
| 20 |
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Creating a Global Grid of Distributed Fossil Fuel CO2 Emissions from Nighttime Satellite ImageryEnergies (Basel), 2010-12, Vol.3 (12), p.1895-1913 [Peer Reviewed Journal]Copyright MDPI AG 2010 ;ISSN: 1996-1073 ;EISSN: 1996-1073 ;DOI: 10.3390/en3121895Full text available |
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